toefl真题集tpo 托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups

小编今天整理了一些toefl真题集tpo 托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups相关内容，希望能够帮到大家。

本文目录一览：

• 1、托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups
• 2、托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TradeandtheAncientMiddleEast
• 3、托福TPO阅读真题之Cave Art in Europe

托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups

为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Types of Social Groups，希望大家喜欢!

托福阅读原文

Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.

People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.

Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.

A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.

Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.

Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.

Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.

托福阅读试题

1.The word “complex”(Paragraph 1)in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.delicate

B.elaborate

C.private

D.common

2.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of a relationship?

A. It is a structure of associations with many people.

B. It should be studied in the course of a social interaction.

C. It places great demands on people.

D. It develops gradually overtime.

3.The word endowing in the passage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

A.leaving

B.exposing

C. providing

D. understanding

4.Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2?

A. Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate.

B.Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties.

C. Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance.

D.Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant.

5.According to paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups?

A.Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings.

B. In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends.

C. Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose.

D.Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people.

6.Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships?

A.Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships.

B.A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship.

C.Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society.

D. Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships.

7.The phrase “size up” in the passage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

A.enlarge

B.evaluate

C. impress

D. accept

8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 5)in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society.

B.Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups.

C.Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they help maintain a society's cultural patterns.

D.Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups.

9.This passage is developed primarily by

A.drawing comparisons between theory and practice

B.presenting two opposing theories

C.defining important concepts and providing examples of them

D.discussing causes and their effects

10.The word “deviate” in the passage(Paragraph 7)is closest in meaning to

A.detract

B.advance

C.select

D.depart

11.According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning?

A.To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the group

B.To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the group

C.To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the group

D.To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation

12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. People who do not live alone, for example, tend to make healthier life choices and develop fewer pathologies than people who live by themselves. Where would the sentence best fit?

Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. ■【A】Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. ■【B】Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. ■【C】For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is. ■【D】

13.Directions: Complete the table below by selecting three answer choices that are characteristics of primary groups and two answer choices that are characteristics of secondary groups. This question is worth 3 points.

A.Developing socially acceptable behavior

B. Working together against competitors

C.Experiencing pressure from outside forces

D.Viewing people as a means to an end

E.Existing for practical purposes

F.Providing meaning for life situations

G.Involving close relationships

1 )

Primary Groups

A B C D E F G

2 )

Secondary Groups

A B C D E F G

托福 阅读答案

1.complex复杂的，所以B的elaborate正确。原句说生活把我们放在什么样的与其他人的关系网中，因为很多人，所以关系网比较复杂正确。A的delicate脆弱的，纤细的，美味的;C的私人和D的普通都不靠谱

2.以relationship做关键词定位至最后一句，注意relationships不能做关键词，因为多次重复出现。原句说当这种association持续的时间足够长以至于两个人之间已经形成了稳定的expectation，就叫relationship，所以D说随时间develop正确。A的many people，B的study，C的demand都没说

3.endow赋予，捐助，所以provide提供，供给正确。原句说有时候我们与其他人合作只是做完某事，却没有任何significance，猜到这个词应该是有的意思，只有provide和leave表示有，但leave是剩下，所以不对。至于B暴露D理解完全不对

4.以competitor做关键词定位至倒数第二句，说偶尔这意味着与竞争对手合作而非竞争，而这个this意味着这句话跟前一句有联系。前一句说instrumental ties是我们在与别人合作达到某种目的的时候形成的，这与A说的通常不合作的人也有形成instrumental完全一样。B没说，C与原文的第三句说反，D与原文最后一句说反

5.分别以primary group和secondary group做关键词定位至第二句和第四句，分别说了两个group，primary的是比较亲密的，secondary是因为事先某种共同的目的才形成的，所以答案是C。A错，不是用work来区分这两个group的;两者同样不是以人数区分的，所以D错;C的end不end是原文在后面才说的，也不能区分这两个group

6.以evolve out of做关键词定位至倒数第三句，但这句话跟问题几乎是完全一样的，所以不是答案。往后看，this标示着上下句之间有联系。下句说这种evolve发生在工作背景下，接着说同事之间可以通过share各种东西变成非常亲密的朋友，也就是secondary变primary 的一个例子，所以正确答案是D。A说反;B和C均没说而且C有违常识

7.size up估量，估计，所以正确答案是B的evaluate。原句说面对面交流使得我们能够怎么样别人，评价别人是正确的。A的扩大别人明显是不对的。原文没说接受别人，也没说给别人留下印象，所以都不对

8.原文的结构是sociologist把primary group看成blabla，因为blabla。只有C表达了原因，A缺了原文的很多信息，错;B和D都缺失了原文很重要的because部分，所以都是错的

9.问本文的组织结构，问全文的题应该多关注各段的开头。原文首先提出了两个关系，然后又说expressive tie和instrumental tie，最后又说了primary group产生的条件。叙述两类关系用的笔墨明显不等，所以不是对比，所以B不对，A的理论和实践原文完全没说，而且也说到了对比，也不对;D的因果是原文完全没说的。作者定义了两个group和两个tie，所以C说定义概念是对的，而且作者在定义概念之后都有解释，所以C正确

10.deviate偏离，出轨，所以正确答案是D的depart偏离。原句说一旦奖励不行，group的成员可以威胁排斥那些怎么样规则的人，肯定是对规则不好的人，所以advance和中性的select不对;detract表示减损或者转移，跟depart所表示的离经叛道是两个意思，所以不对

11.以shunning做关键词定位至第四句，说人们会用shunning吧离经叛道的人弄回来，但没给出原因。这句中的for example说明是上句的例子，前面一句说如果奖励不行，我们就排斥那些不守规矩的人，所以一切都是为了强化规则，答案是A。B说不鼓励冒犯group当中的人，原文没说冒犯人;C的reward和D的next generation都没说

12.两个过渡点，分别是连词for example和名词healthier life choices，根据for example排除C和D，因为原文也有for example，而正常说话的时候两个for example是不连续使用的;而且根据healthier life choices跟原文中sense of well-being的同义替换也可以确定是A或者B，但A点后的them与前文衔接紧密，所以答案是B

13.此题不典型，因为作者用了 文章 的第四到七段较大篇幅讲primary，却只用了第二和第三段的部分讲到secondary，而且本文对于两个group的叙述存在交叉，交叉的部分主要在第二三两段，但这两段的叙述也是先primary后secondary，所以顺序性还是有的。第三段的四五两句分别对应existing和viewing两个答案，所以这两个答案属于secondary;第二段和第三段的第三句对应providing答案，第三段第二句对应involving答案，最后一段的第三句和第四句对应developing选项，结合11题的答案很容易选出这项

托福阅读译文

我们和他人一起生活在一个复杂的关系网中。我们的人性就产生于这种社会性的互动关系中，与此同时，我们的人性也必须通过经常性的社会互动才能得以维持。当两个人在比较稳定的期望值下的交流时间足够长并且形成一种联系时，这种联系就可以称为关系。

人与人之间的关系可以分为两种：情感纽带和工具纽带。情感纽带是当我们做情感投资并致力于他人的一种社会关系。通过和对我们来说十分重要的人交流从而得到安全感、爱情、认同、友谊以及个人价值等一系列情感。工具纽带是我们为达到某种目的而与他人进行合作时产生的社会联系方式。有些时候，这也许意味着变相与竞争者共事。更多的时候我们没有发展出任何更有意义的关系而只是简单的与他人合作达成目的。

社会学家基于情感纽带与工具纽带区别，将社会群体划分成两类：主要群体和次要群体。一个主要群体包含两个以上成员，他们彼此之间的关系是直接的,亲密的,聚合性的。情感纽带在主要社群中起主导作用，我们把人们自身看做目标和人们自己权利的价值。次要群体也是由两个以上成员组成，他们因非个人关系聚到一起都是为了一个特定的,实际的目标而努力。工具纽带在次要群体中起了重要的作用。我们把人自身看做是人目标的途径而不是人们自己权利的目标。有时主要群体的关系也会在次要群体中演化而来。这种现象在工作环境中时有发生。工作伙伴在共事过程中会彼此分享抱怨、玩笑、八卦以及满足感，由此也会发展出亲近的关系。

很多情况也会增加主要群体出现的可能性。首先，群体的规模非常重要。我们很难去了解那些散布在大群体中的某个人。而在小群体中我们有更多机会发起联系并与他人建立关系。第二，面对面的交流能让我们更好地了解彼此。与他人近距离接触和交谈可以更好地交流情感和思想。第三，频繁持续的交流也能增加我们发展主要群体的可能性。我们与他人的联系会随着我们与他人的互动时间而加深，并逐渐演化出连锁的习惯和兴趣。

主要群体是人与人之间乃至整个社会的基础。首先，主要群体在社会化进程中至关重要。在主要群体里，婴儿与孩童可以学习处世方式。这种群体是我们社会生活必备规范和价值的培养地。社会学家将主要群体比作独立个体与整个社会之间的桥梁，因为它能传达,调解并解读一个社会的 文化 模式，提供一种归属感有助于社会团结。

其次，主要群体之所以是基础是因为它能提供满足我们大多数人需求的环境。在主要群体中，我们可以收获友情、爱情、安全感以及所有幸福的情感。社会学家发现一个群体的主要纽带的强弱往往暗示着这个群体的功能，这不足为奇。例如，一个体育团队的主要群体纽带越强，他们就越容易取得好成绩。

第三，主要群体之所以是基础还因为他们充当了强有力的社会调控工具。群体中的成员掌控并分配能够维持我们生存的极其重要的资源。如果奖励方式不当，群体内成员就会通过拒绝或威胁来摒弃那些背离群体规范的人，例如，一些社会群体采取规避 措施 (人可以留在群体中，但禁止其他成员与其交流)，从而将特定群体中逾矩的个体慢慢同化与他人一致。更重要的是，主要群体通过构筑我们的 经验 来定义社会现实。他们根据我们的行为来定义我们的处境，以遵循群体分配的意义。因此，主要群体既是社会规范的载体同时也是社会规范的实施者。

托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TradeandtheAncientMiddleEast

TPO是我们常用的 托福 模考工具，对我们的备考很有价值，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Trade and the Ancient Middle East 。

托福阅读原文

Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials , such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems.

Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.

This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.

The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade—an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and ntrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.

Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious.

托福阅读试题

1.According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East

A.The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.

B.Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.

C.Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.

D.Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.

2.The word “repudiate” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning to

A.respect

B.reject

C.review

D.revise

3.According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?

A.Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop.

B.Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters.

C.Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.

D.The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family.

4.The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading (in passage 3) in order to

A.support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds w very good for trade

B.contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies

C.provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled

D.suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds

5.According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds EXCEPT:

A.The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craft production.

B.Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.

C.The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.

D.All guild members were treated as equals.

6.The word “consensus” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

A.authority

B.responsibility

C.custom

D.agreement

7.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success in themercantile economy?

A.Good business sense

B.Reliable associates 蜕变培训网

C.Family wealth

D.Constant effort

8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another.

B.Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally.

C.While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.

D.Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.

9.The word “ethic” in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning to

A.set of moral principles

B.division of labor

C.economic system

D.test of character

10.According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisans have that many other people have not had?

A.If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on personal connections to find a different kind of work.

B.They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professions of moral superiority.

C.Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better working conditions.

D.If they didn't like their environment, they could move somewhere else.

11.The word “intrinsically” in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

A.fundamentally

B.surprisingly

C.consequently

D.particularly

12.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up by Vasco da Gama's fifteenth century voyage around Africa?

A.To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass Middle Eastern merchants

B.To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of their reliance on long-distance trade

C.To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid Middle Eastern states whose central power had begun to erode

D.To explain how da Gama helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowling the areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad.

Paragraph3: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■【A】Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. ■【B】In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■【C】The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. ■【D】

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Since ancient times. reliance on trade has shaped the culture and organizational structure of Middle Eastern societies.

A.Persian and Arabian merchants traveled great distances to sell their finished goods at the marketplaces of ancient Sumeria.

B.Revenue from trade was unevenly distributed, causing Middle Eastern societies to be characterized by growing distinctions in wealth and power.

C.Qualities that were valued in the mercantile economy included individualism, hard work, loyalty, and the willingness to take risks.

D.As production increased, centralized control over production also increased, leading in turn to more-centralized control over fellowship and worship.

E.Crafts were produced by skilled artisans working in close, egalitarian relationships with their masters and other fellow guild members.

F.The stability of Middle Eastern governments was threatened by their lack of control over international trade patterns and over their own peripheral territories.

托福 阅读答案

1.问trade为什么主要，这段第一句就说是mainstay，第二句就给出了原因，说他们没有这个没有那个，所以答案是C。A说中东有material，明显与原文说反;B的中东很穷和D的frequent travel原文都没说。

2.repudiate与……断绝关系，驳斥，所以reject正确。原句说师徒之间是一种契约关系，这个契约任意一方都可以怎么样，下一句又说是一种伙伴关系，也就是没有强制性，所以答案是任何一方都可以撕毁，所以答案是reject。respect和review都不靠谱;revise单纯的改变也不是作者的意思。

3.以shop owners做关键词定位至第二句，但第二句没有回答问题，所以往后看，后一句说老板和工人之间的界限被blur模糊了，而且他们同吃同住一起工作，所以答案是D。A的workers rank原文没说;B说对不同工人态度不同，与原文相反;C的unbreakable contract与最后一句相反。

4.修辞目的题，先看修辞点所在 句子 ，只是一个例子，放弃;往前看，说有行业协会互助互惠，但这明显也还是一个例子，所以看本段中心句，说这种生产方式倾向于促进自律平等的同业协会的发展，所以答案是C。

5.EXCEPT题，排除法。A的support workers和uphold principles做关键词定位至第二句，原文的mutual aid and protection等于support workers，maintaneance of professional standards等于uphold principles，A正确，不选;B的geographic area原文没有对应点，错，选;C的vote做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选;D的equals做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选。

6.consensus合约，同意，协定，所以D的agreement正确。原句说人与人之间的关系非常和谐，他们听他们领导的话，通过什么实现自律并尽量减小贫富差距，减小差距就是为了求得某种一致，所以答案是agreement。A权威，B责任，C习惯，都不靠谱。

7.EXCEPT题，排除法。A与倒数第二句的entrepreneurial skill同义替换，正确，不选;B与倒数第二句的loyalty of one’s fellow同义替换，正确，不选;C在原文中无对应点，错，选;D与倒数第二句的steady hard work同义替换，正确，不选。

8.原句的结构是在什么什么人当中，什么和什么很重要，在什么什么环境下。所以B正确。A混淆原文概念，原文说在当时的环境下只能靠promise形成商业网络，人们和认识的人做生意，不是人们靠promise做生意;C错，原文说没有regulation，C说反;D错，因为only原文从来没说过。

9.ethic道德规范，伦理，所以A正确。原文说商人和工匠们不能忍受moral superiority，更喜欢open market的什么，既然不喜欢moral superiority，那么他们喜欢的东西也应该跟道德有关，所以答案是A，而B劳力分工C经济体系和D性格测试完全不靠谱。

10.以many other people做关键词定位至最后一句，说如果不满意当地的商业环境，中东商人会像游牧民族一样迁移到其他地方，这是其他人做不到的，所以答案是D。

11.intrinsically本质的，内部的，固有的，所以答案A正确。原句说尽管中部的国家很富裕而且人口稠密，但他们是怎么样脆弱的，由于新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，都能侵蚀了，所以应该是脆弱的，但前文又说人口密集并且富裕，所以这些都是表象，所以答案是A的fundamentallly基础;B吃惊C结果D特别都没反应这种内外的差别，所以都不对。

12.修辞目的题，先把本句读清楚，说新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，接着就说就像达伽马发现了新航路之后欧洲人绕过了中东，所以说达伽马的事儿是为了证明航线的发现能够削弱国家的力量，所以答案是B。

13.两个过渡点，连词for one thing和名词finished goods，既然是for one thing，就应该放在比较靠前的位置上，所以A或者B有可能，而放在A正好对应之前的several important consequences;而且finished goods与原文当中的production对应，所以A正确。

14.Persian选项是原文第一段中的一个细节，不选;Revenue选项与原文第三段最后一句说反，是贫富差距缩小，不是扩大，不选;Qualities选项对应第四段，正确;As选项与原文第三段第一句相反，不选;Crafts选项对应原文第二段和第三段的最后一句，正确;The stability选项对应原文第五段第一句，正确。

托福阅读译文

自从中东地区的商旅们成功跨越周围的戈壁，只有水路和山峦还是障碍时，贸易就成为了中东地区城市经济的主要支柱。这种情况(贸易是主要支柱)从古至今都是如此，一部分原因是中东地区的地质环境——多为沙石和石灰岩，金属矿藏和 其它 有用材料很少。古代对黑曜石(一种火山岩，可以用来制作镜子和工具)的需求引发了(中东地区)与北方的亚美尼亚之间的贸易;用作切削工具的玉石从土耳其斯坦购买;而稀有贵重的琉璃青金石是从阿富汗地区进口。探险活动最早可以追溯至古苏美尔——已知最早的中东文明。记录显示商队和贸易站由古苏美尔人在周围山区及古波斯和阿拉伯的沙漠地区建立。

过于依赖贸易造成了一些重大影响。生产工作一般在师傅也是店主的监视下，由熟练的工匠计件完成。在这些店铺中，阶级差异并不明显，因为工匠和店主同在一个相对舒适的环境中共事，通常有着相同的宗教信仰，而且又是街坊邻里，彼此之间还很有可能(没准真的)是亲戚关系。工人和店主双方具有劳务关系，任一方都有权终止，这是合作关系中的一种。

这种生产模式有助于自主管理制度的发展，在中东城市里意识形态上秉持人人平等的手工行会比比皆是。他们实质上是专门提供互助且保护组织成员的协会组织，同时注重维持行业标准。独立行会不断增加，是因为剩余价值的产生并非由于国内生产，而是主要来自于国际间的贸易活动。政府允许劳动人民自主管理，这和部落首领让牧羊者们离群索居一样。在当地，团体、信仰以及生产方面的小型平等主义团体或类似平等主义的组织在这种自由放任的环境里遍地开花，和谐平等的团体中，成员之间相互影响，追随着他们自己选举的领导人，在缩小财富和权力差距的同时通过分享意见进行自我管理。

商品经济也通过靠贸易为生的商人所秉持的特定道德立场表现出来。他们具有独立自主、精于计算、敢于冒险和随遇而安的优秀品质。在部落成员之间，人际关系和谨言慎行的品质在监管不严的商品经济中至关重要,商品经济里人们出口成契，诚信基础上的非正式联系形成了一个国际贸易网络。从没有商人和工匠对贵族职业的道德优越感如此宽容，这很好地促进了开放市场中的平等主义，人们辛勤工作，忠诚跟随，具备企业家精神非常重要。而且，这和畜牧文明类似，中东的商人和工匠们若对自己所处的环境不满意，简单收拾一下就可迁移到一个更加丰茂的牧场——纵观历史，如此随性而为的行为在其他多数文明中是无法想象的。

对远距离贸易的依赖也意味着伟大的中东帝国得以建立在这片飘忽不定却又无比真实的沙土之中。帝国中部尽管非常富足繁盛，但本质上脆弱不堪，因为新的国际贸易线路的出现会动摇经济基础并腐蚀国家权力。就在15世纪晚期达伽马绕过非洲开辟南部航线以后，欧洲的水手们便绕过中东商人改走南部航线了。该地区的生态环境也允许武装“捕食者”在周围的荒漠潜行，几乎很难被帝国控制。外围的人借此得到一个应对中央帝国的绝好机会，这让政府惴惴不安。

苏美尔人(也译作苏默)，是历史上两河流域(底格里斯河和幼发拉底河中下游)早期的定居民族，他们所建立的苏美尔文明是整个美索不达米亚文明中最早，同时也是全世界最早产生的文明。

托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Trade and the Ancient Middle East相关 文章 ：

托福TPO阅读真题之Cave Art in Europe

下面是一篇托福TPO阅读真题，这篇托福阅读真题的主要内容是关于欧洲的岩洞艺术的相关信息。欧洲的岩洞艺术已经有几万年的历史了，这些岩洞艺术反映出了当初人们的什么文化，这些艺术有什么作用呢?下面是详细内容。

The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30.000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

Paragraph 1: The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

1.The word “marked” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Considerable　　○Surprising　　○Limited　　○Adequate

2.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about painting in Europe?

○It is much older than painting in Australia.

○It is as much as 28,000 years old.

○It is not as old as painting in southern Africa.

○It is much more than 30,000 years old.

Paragraph 2：The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

3.The word “principal” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Major　　○Likely　　○Well protected　　○Distinct

4.According to paragraph 2, what makes some researchers think that certain cave paintings were connected with magical-religious activities?

○The paintings were located where many people could easily see them, allowing groups of people to participate in the magical-religious activities.

○Upper Paleolithic people shared similar beliefs with contemporary peoples who use paintings of animals in their magical-religious rituals.

○Evidence of magical-religious activities has been found in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves.

○The paintings were found in hard-to-reach places away from the inhabited parts of the cave.

Paragraph 3：The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death of injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

5.The word “trappings” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Conditions　　○Problems　　○Influences　　○Decorations

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that if they drew a human image in their cave art, it would cause death or injury.

○Many contemporary people believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, so they, like Upper Paleolithic people, rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

○If Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, this belief might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.

○Although many contemporary peoples believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, researchers cannot explain why Upper Paleolithic people rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

7.According to paragraph 3, scholars explained chips in the painted figures of animals by proposing that

○Upper Paleolithic artists used marks to record the animals they had seen

○the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals for hunting

○the artists had removed rough spots on the cave walls

○Upper Paleolithic people used the paintings to increase their luck at hunting

8.Why does the author mention that Upper Paleolithic cave art seemed to have “reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing”?

○To argue that Upper Paleolithic art creased to include animals when herds of game became scarce

○To provide support for the idea that the aim of the paintings was to increase the supply of animals for hunting

○To emphasize the continued improvement in the quality of cave art throughout the Upper Paleolithic period

○To show the direct connection between the decrease in herds of game and the end of the Upper Paleolithic period

Paragraph 4：The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

9.According to paragraph 4, scholars believe that wild cattle, horses, and mammoths are the animals most frequently portrayed in cave paintings for all of the following reasons EXPECT:

○These animals were difficult to hunt because their unpredictable behavior.

○People preferred these animals for their meat and for their skins.

○The painters admired the beauty of these large animals.

○People feared these animals because of their size and speed.

10.According to paragraph 4, which of the following may best represent the attitude of hunters toward deer and reindeer in the Upper Paleolithic period?

○Hunters did not fear deer and reindeers as much as they did large game animals such as horses and mammoths.

○Hunters were not interested in hunting deer and reindeer because of their size and speed.

○Hunters preferred the meat and hides of deer and reindeer to those of other animals.

○Hunters avoided deer and reindeer because of their natural weapons, such as horns.

11.According to paragraph 4, what change is evident in the art of the period following the Upper Paleolithic?

○This new art starts to depict small animals rather than large ones.

○This new art ceases to reflect the ways in which people obtained their food.

○This new art no longer consists mostly of representations of animals.

○This new art begins to show the importance of hunting to the economy.

Paragraph 5：Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30.000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

12.According to paragraph 5, which of the following has been used as evidence to suggest that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and conscious awareness of their environment?

○They engraved animal figures on the shafts of spears and other objects.

○They may have used engraved signs to record the phases of the Moon.

○Their figurines represented the human female in exaggerated form.

○They may have used figurines to portray an ideal type or to express a desire for fertility.

Paragraph 3：The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death of injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting.█ This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. █ But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. █ Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing. █

13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

Therefore, if the paintings were connected with hunting, some other explanation is needed.

Where would the sentence best fit?

14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that explain the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in Western Europe are among humanity’s earliest artistic efforts.

Answer choices

○Researchers have proposed several different explanations for the fact that animals were the most common subjects in the cave paintings.

○The art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic ceased to portray large game animals and focused instead on the kinds of animals that people of that period preferred to hunt.

○Some researchers believe that the paintings found in France provide more explicit evidence of their symbolic significance than those found in Spain, southern Africa, and Australia.

○The cave paintings focus on portraying animals without also depicting the natural environments in which these animals are typically found.

○Some researchers have argued that the cave paintings mostly portrayed large animals that provided Upper Paleolithic people with meat and materials.

○Besides cave paintings, Upper Paleolithic people produced several other kinds of artwork, one of which has been thought to provide evidence of complex thought.

参考答案：

1. ○1

2. ○2

3. ○1

4. ○4

5. ○4

6. ○3

7. ○4

8.○2

9. ○3

10. ○1

11. ○3

12. ○2

13. ○3

14. ○1 5 6

参考译文

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