托福TPO阅读真题之Cave Art in Europe（托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups）

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本文目录一览：

• 1、托福TPO阅读真题之Cave Art in Europe
• 2、托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups
• 3、托福TPO3阅读真题原文及答案翻译Part3

托福TPO阅读真题之Cave Art in Europe

下面是一篇托福TPO阅读真题，这篇托福阅读真题的主要内容是关于欧洲的岩洞艺术的相关信息。欧洲的岩洞艺术已经有几万年的历史了，这些岩洞艺术反映出了当初人们的什么文化，这些艺术有什么作用呢?下面是详细内容。

The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30.000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

Paragraph 1: The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

1.The word “marked” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Considerable　　○Surprising　　○Limited　　○Adequate

2.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about painting in Europe?

○It is much older than painting in Australia.

○It is as much as 28,000 years old.

○It is not as old as painting in southern Africa.

○It is much more than 30,000 years old.

Paragraph 2：The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

3.The word “principal” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Major　　○Likely　　○Well protected　　○Distinct

4.According to paragraph 2, what makes some researchers think that certain cave paintings were connected with magical-religious activities?

○The paintings were located where many people could easily see them, allowing groups of people to participate in the magical-religious activities.

○Upper Paleolithic people shared similar beliefs with contemporary peoples who use paintings of animals in their magical-religious rituals.

○Evidence of magical-religious activities has been found in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves.

○The paintings were found in hard-to-reach places away from the inhabited parts of the cave.

Paragraph 3：The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death of injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

5.The word “trappings” in the passage is closest in meaning to

○Conditions　　○Problems　　○Influences　　○Decorations

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that if they drew a human image in their cave art, it would cause death or injury.

○Many contemporary people believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, so they, like Upper Paleolithic people, rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

○If Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, this belief might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.

○Although many contemporary peoples believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, researchers cannot explain why Upper Paleolithic people rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

7.According to paragraph 3, scholars explained chips in the painted figures of animals by proposing that

○Upper Paleolithic artists used marks to record the animals they had seen

○the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals for hunting

○the artists had removed rough spots on the cave walls

○Upper Paleolithic people used the paintings to increase their luck at hunting

8.Why does the author mention that Upper Paleolithic cave art seemed to have “reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing”?

○To argue that Upper Paleolithic art creased to include animals when herds of game became scarce

○To provide support for the idea that the aim of the paintings was to increase the supply of animals for hunting

○To emphasize the continued improvement in the quality of cave art throughout the Upper Paleolithic period

○To show the direct connection between the decrease in herds of game and the end of the Upper Paleolithic period

Paragraph 4：The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

9.According to paragraph 4, scholars believe that wild cattle, horses, and mammoths are the animals most frequently portrayed in cave paintings for all of the following reasons EXPECT:

○These animals were difficult to hunt because their unpredictable behavior.

○People preferred these animals for their meat and for their skins.

○The painters admired the beauty of these large animals.

○People feared these animals because of their size and speed.

10.According to paragraph 4, which of the following may best represent the attitude of hunters toward deer and reindeer in the Upper Paleolithic period?

○Hunters did not fear deer and reindeers as much as they did large game animals such as horses and mammoths.

○Hunters were not interested in hunting deer and reindeer because of their size and speed.

○Hunters preferred the meat and hides of deer and reindeer to those of other animals.

○Hunters avoided deer and reindeer because of their natural weapons, such as horns.

11.According to paragraph 4, what change is evident in the art of the period following the Upper Paleolithic?

○This new art starts to depict small animals rather than large ones.

○This new art ceases to reflect the ways in which people obtained their food.

○This new art no longer consists mostly of representations of animals.

○This new art begins to show the importance of hunting to the economy.

Paragraph 5：Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30.000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

12.According to paragraph 5, which of the following has been used as evidence to suggest that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and conscious awareness of their environment?

○They engraved animal figures on the shafts of spears and other objects.

○They may have used engraved signs to record the phases of the Moon.

○Their figurines represented the human female in exaggerated form.

○They may have used figurines to portray an ideal type or to express a desire for fertility.

Paragraph 3：The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death of injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting.█ This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. █ But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. █ Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing. █

13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

Therefore, if the paintings were connected with hunting, some other explanation is needed.

Where would the sentence best fit?

14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that explain the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in Western Europe are among humanity’s earliest artistic efforts.

Answer choices

○Researchers have proposed several different explanations for the fact that animals were the most common subjects in the cave paintings.

○The art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic ceased to portray large game animals and focused instead on the kinds of animals that people of that period preferred to hunt.

○Some researchers believe that the paintings found in France provide more explicit evidence of their symbolic significance than those found in Spain, southern Africa, and Australia.

○The cave paintings focus on portraying animals without also depicting the natural environments in which these animals are typically found.

○Some researchers have argued that the cave paintings mostly portrayed large animals that provided Upper Paleolithic people with meat and materials.

○Besides cave paintings, Upper Paleolithic people produced several other kinds of artwork, one of which has been thought to provide evidence of complex thought.

参考答案：

1. ○1

2. ○2

3. ○1

4. ○4

5. ○4

6. ○3

7. ○4

8.○2

9. ○3

10. ○1

11. ○3

12. ○2

13. ○3

14. ○1 5 6

参考译文

托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups

为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面我给大家带来托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Types of Social Groups，希望大家喜欢!

托福阅读原文

Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.

People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.

Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.

A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.

Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.

Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.

Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.

托福阅读试题

1.The word “complex”(Paragraph 1)in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.delicate

B.elaborate

C.private

D.common

2.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of a relationship?

A. It is a structure of associations with many people.

B. It should be studied in the course of a social interaction.

C. It places great demands on people.

D. It develops gradually overtime.

3.The word endowing in the passage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

A.leaving

B.exposing

C. providing

D. understanding

4.Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2?

A. Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate.

B.Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties.

C. Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance.

D.Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant.

5.According to paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups?

A.Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings.

B. In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends.

C. Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose.

D.Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people.

6.Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships?

A.Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships.

B.A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship.

C.Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society.

D. Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships.

7.The phrase “size up” in the passage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

A.enlarge

B.evaluate

C. impress

D. accept

8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 5)in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society.

B.Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups.

C.Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they help maintain a society's cultural patterns.

D.Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups.

9.This passage is developed primarily by

A.drawing comparisons between theory and practice

B.presenting two opposing theories

C.defining important concepts and providing examples of them

D.discussing causes and their effects

10.The word “deviate” in the passage(Paragraph 7)is closest in meaning to

A.detract

B.advance

C.select

D.depart

11.According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning?

A.To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the group

B.To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the group

C.To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the group

D.To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation

12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. People who do not live alone, for example, tend to make healthier life choices and develop fewer pathologies than people who live by themselves. Where would the sentence best fit?

Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. ■【A】Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. ■【B】Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. ■【C】For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is. ■【D】

13.Directions: Complete the table below by selecting three answer choices that are characteristics of primary groups and two answer choices that are characteristics of secondary groups. This question is worth 3 points.

A.Developing socially acceptable behavior

B. Working together against competitors

C.Experiencing pressure from outside forces

D.Viewing people as a means to an end

E.Existing for practical purposes

F.Providing meaning for life situations

G.Involving close relationships

1 )

Primary Groups

A B C D E F G

2 )

Secondary Groups

A B C D E F G

托福 阅读答案

1.complex复杂的，所以B的elaborate正确。原句说生活把我们放在什么样的与其他人的关系网中，因为很多人，所以关系网比较复杂正确。A的delicate脆弱的，纤细的，美味的;C的私人和D的普通都不靠谱

2.以relationship做关键词定位至最后一句，注意relationships不能做关键词，因为多次重复出现。原句说当这种association持续的时间足够长以至于两个人之间已经形成了稳定的expectation，就叫relationship，所以D说随时间develop正确。A的many people，B的study，C的demand都没说

3.endow赋予，捐助，所以provide提供，供给正确。原句说有时候我们与其他人合作只是做完某事，却没有任何significance，猜到这个词应该是有的意思，只有provide和leave表示有，但leave是剩下，所以不对。至于B暴露D理解完全不对

4.以competitor做关键词定位至倒数第二句，说偶尔这意味着与竞争对手合作而非竞争，而这个this意味着这句话跟前一句有联系。前一句说instrumental ties是我们在与别人合作达到某种目的的时候形成的，这与A说的通常不合作的人也有形成instrumental完全一样。B没说，C与原文的第三句说反，D与原文最后一句说反

5.分别以primary group和secondary group做关键词定位至第二句和第四句，分别说了两个group，primary的是比较亲密的，secondary是因为事先某种共同的目的才形成的，所以答案是C。A错，不是用work来区分这两个group的;两者同样不是以人数区分的，所以D错;C的end不end是原文在后面才说的，也不能区分这两个group

6.以evolve out of做关键词定位至倒数第三句，但这句话跟问题几乎是完全一样的，所以不是答案。往后看，this标示着上下句之间有联系。下句说这种evolve发生在工作背景下，接着说同事之间可以通过share各种东西变成非常亲密的朋友，也就是secondary变primary 的一个例子，所以正确答案是D。A说反;B和C均没说而且C有违常识

7.size up估量，估计，所以正确答案是B的evaluate。原句说面对面交流使得我们能够怎么样别人，评价别人是正确的。A的扩大别人明显是不对的。原文没说接受别人，也没说给别人留下印象，所以都不对

8.原文的结构是sociologist把primary group看成blabla，因为blabla。只有C表达了原因，A缺了原文的很多信息，错;B和D都缺失了原文很重要的because部分，所以都是错的

9.问本文的组织结构，问全文的题应该多关注各段的开头。原文首先提出了两个关系，然后又说expressive tie和instrumental tie，最后又说了primary group产生的条件。叙述两类关系用的笔墨明显不等，所以不是对比，所以B不对，A的理论和实践原文完全没说，而且也说到了对比，也不对;D的因果是原文完全没说的。作者定义了两个group和两个tie，所以C说定义概念是对的，而且作者在定义概念之后都有解释，所以C正确

10.deviate偏离，出轨，所以正确答案是D的depart偏离。原句说一旦奖励不行，group的成员可以威胁排斥那些怎么样规则的人，肯定是对规则不好的人，所以advance和中性的select不对;detract表示减损或者转移，跟depart所表示的离经叛道是两个意思，所以不对

11.以shunning做关键词定位至第四句，说人们会用shunning吧离经叛道的人弄回来，但没给出原因。这句中的for example说明是上句的例子，前面一句说如果奖励不行，我们就排斥那些不守规矩的人，所以一切都是为了强化规则，答案是A。B说不鼓励冒犯group当中的人，原文没说冒犯人;C的reward和D的next generation都没说

12.两个过渡点，分别是连词for example和名词healthier life choices，根据for example排除C和D，因为原文也有for example，而正常说话的时候两个for example是不连续使用的;而且根据healthier life choices跟原文中sense of well-being的同义替换也可以确定是A或者B，但A点后的them与前文衔接紧密，所以答案是B

13.此题不典型，因为作者用了 文章 的第四到七段较大篇幅讲primary，却只用了第二和第三段的部分讲到secondary，而且本文对于两个group的叙述存在交叉，交叉的部分主要在第二三两段，但这两段的叙述也是先primary后secondary，所以顺序性还是有的。第三段的四五两句分别对应existing和viewing两个答案，所以这两个答案属于secondary;第二段和第三段的第三句对应providing答案，第三段第二句对应involving答案，最后一段的第三句和第四句对应developing选项，结合11题的答案很容易选出这项

托福阅读译文

我们和他人一起生活在一个复杂的关系网中。我们的人性就产生于这种社会性的互动关系中，与此同时，我们的人性也必须通过经常性的社会互动才能得以维持。当两个人在比较稳定的期望值下的交流时间足够长并且形成一种联系时，这种联系就可以称为关系。

人与人之间的关系可以分为两种：情感纽带和工具纽带。情感纽带是当我们做情感投资并致力于他人的一种社会关系。通过和对我们来说十分重要的人交流从而得到安全感、爱情、认同、友谊以及个人价值等一系列情感。工具纽带是我们为达到某种目的而与他人进行合作时产生的社会联系方式。有些时候，这也许意味着变相与竞争者共事。更多的时候我们没有发展出任何更有意义的关系而只是简单的与他人合作达成目的。

社会学家基于情感纽带与工具纽带区别，将社会群体划分成两类：主要群体和次要群体。一个主要群体包含两个以上成员，他们彼此之间的关系是直接的,亲密的,聚合性的。情感纽带在主要社群中起主导作用，我们把人们自身看做目标和人们自己权利的价值。次要群体也是由两个以上成员组成，他们因非个人关系聚到一起都是为了一个特定的,实际的目标而努力。工具纽带在次要群体中起了重要的作用。我们把人自身看做是人目标的途径而不是人们自己权利的目标。有时主要群体的关系也会在次要群体中演化而来。这种现象在工作环境中时有发生。工作伙伴在共事过程中会彼此分享抱怨、玩笑、八卦以及满足感，由此也会发展出亲近的关系。

很多情况也会增加主要群体出现的可能性。首先，群体的规模非常重要。我们很难去了解那些散布在大群体中的某个人。而在小群体中我们有更多机会发起联系并与他人建立关系。第二，面对面的交流能让我们更好地了解彼此。与他人近距离接触和交谈可以更好地交流情感和思想。第三，频繁持续的交流也能增加我们发展主要群体的可能性。我们与他人的联系会随着我们与他人的互动时间而加深，并逐渐演化出连锁的习惯和兴趣。

主要群体是人与人之间乃至整个社会的基础。首先，主要群体在社会化进程中至关重要。在主要群体里，婴儿与孩童可以学习处世方式。这种群体是我们社会生活必备规范和价值的培养地。社会学家将主要群体比作独立个体与整个社会之间的桥梁，因为它能传达,调解并解读一个社会的 文化 模式，提供一种归属感有助于社会团结。

其次，主要群体之所以是基础是因为它能提供满足我们大多数人需求的环境。在主要群体中，我们可以收获友情、爱情、安全感以及所有幸福的情感。社会学家发现一个群体的主要纽带的强弱往往暗示着这个群体的功能，这不足为奇。例如，一个体育团队的主要群体纽带越强，他们就越容易取得好成绩。

第三，主要群体之所以是基础还因为他们充当了强有力的社会调控工具。群体中的成员掌控并分配能够维持我们生存的极其重要的资源。如果奖励方式不当，群体内成员就会通过拒绝或威胁来摒弃那些背离群体规范的人，例如，一些社会群体采取规避 措施 (人可以留在群体中，但禁止其他成员与其交流)，从而将特定群体中逾矩的个体慢慢同化与他人一致。更重要的是，主要群体通过构筑我们的 经验 来定义社会现实。他们根据我们的行为来定义我们的处境，以遵循群体分配的意义。因此，主要群体既是社会规范的载体同时也是社会规范的实施者。

托福TPO3阅读真题原文及答案翻译Part3

托福TPO作为托福的模考工具，它的题目对于我们备考托福很有参考价值，为了帮助大家备考，下面我给大家整理了托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part3，望喜欢！

托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part3

The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems

Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term "succession" to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes-in plant numbers and the mix of species-are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.

An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.

The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability-just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.

Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness" of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term "succession" to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes-in plant numbers and the mix of species-are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.

托福TPO3阅读真题题目Part3

1. The word "particular" in the passage is closest in meaning to

○natural

○final

○specific

○complex

2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?

○They occur at the end of a succession.

○They last longer than any other type of community.

○The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.

○They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.

Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?

○Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.

○The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.

○Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.

○A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem's properties.

Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.

4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?

○Pioneer communities

○Climax communities

○Single-crop farmlands

○Successional plant communities

Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?

○The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.

○Ecologists often confuse the word "stability" with the word "resilience."

○The exact meaning of the word "stability" is debated by ecologists.

○There are many different answers to ecological questions.

6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?○They are more resilient than pioneer communities.

○They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.

○They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.

○They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.

Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability-just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.

7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?

○They become less stable as they mature.

○They support many species when they reach climax.

○They are found in temperate zones.

○They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.

8. The word "guarantee" in the passage is closest in meaning to

○increase 蜕变培训网

○ensure

○favor

○complicate

9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that "A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle"?

○To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example

○To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations

○To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity

○To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems

Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

10. The word "pales" in the passage is closest in meaning to

○increases proportionally

○differs

○loses significance

○is common

Paragraph 7: Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness" of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacentcommunity. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.

○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.

○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.

○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.

12.The word "adjacent" in the passage is closest in meaning to

○foreign

○stable

○fluid

○neighboring

Paragraph 6: █Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. █The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. █We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. █

13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.

14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.

●

●

●

Answer choices

○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.

○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.

○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.

○Disagreements over the meaning of the term "stability" make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.

○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans

托福TPO3阅读真题答案Part3

参考答案：

1. ○3

2. ○3

3. ○1

4. ○2

5. ○3

6. ○2

7. ○3

8. ○2

9. ○1

10. ○3

11. ○4

12. ○4

13. ○2

14. A high degree of species diversity

The level of resilience in

Disagreements over the

托福TPO3阅读翻译Part3

参考翻译：生态系统的长期稳定

植物群体可以自由地聚集，它们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。生态学家使用"演替"来诠释植物群落和生态系统随着时间推移所发生的变化。演替中的第一个群落被称作先锋群落，而处于演替最后那个长期生存的群落被称为顶极群落。先锋群落和紧接着的植物群落的变化周期是从1到500年不等，植物数量和混合种类数量的变化是慢慢积累的。顶极群落本身也改变，但其变化周期超过500年。

现代一个研究池塘的生态学会发现池塘在一年当中相对而言是不变的。个别鱼类可能被替换，但年复一年鱼的总数都趋于一致。也就是说，一个生态系统自身的属性要比由单一生物体组成的生态系统更稳定。

生态学家们一度认为物种的多样性使生态系统稳定，生态系统物种越多样则生态系统越稳定。通过观察得出的结论支持了这个观点，长期持久的顶极群落通常要比先锋群落具备更为复杂的食物网和更多的物种。生态学家家们得出的结论是：顶点生态系统的稳定性明显取决于他们的复杂化程度。举个极端的例子，在单一作物的农田中，一年的恶劣天气或单一害虫的入侵就可以摧毁所有作物。与此相反，在一个复杂的顶极群落里，如温带森林，他们便可以抵御来自气候和害虫的干扰和入侵。

不管怎样，生态系统稳定性的问题非常复杂。首先，不是所有的生态学家都赞同"稳定"的含义。稳定性可以简单地定义为缺乏变化。如果是这样的话，顶极群落将被视为最稳定的，因为根据定义，他们随着时间推移而变化得最少。另外，稳定性也可以界定为生态系统在经历了严重破坏之后回复原貌的速度，比如火灾。这种稳定性也被称作弹性。在这种情况下，顶极群落将是最脆弱和最不稳定的，因为他们可能需要数百年时间才能恢复到顶点状态。

即使是这种被定义为简单地缺乏变化的稳定性并非总是与最多样的物种联系起来。至少在温带地区，会经常在演替过程中发现最多物种，而不是在顶极群落中。例如，红杉树林一旦成熟，其中的物种数量以及单个物种的数量都会减少。一般来说，多样性本身并不能保证稳定性(事实上正相反)，生态系统的数学模型也可以得出同样的结论。一个更复杂的系统可能比一个简单的系统更容易被破坏(一个十五速的 赛车 比一个孩子的三轮车更容易损坏)。

生态学家们更想弄清楚到底哪些因素有助于促成群落的恢复，因为世界各地的顶极群落都因为人类活动而遭受到严重的损坏或毁坏。就像美国西北部圣海伦火山的猛烈喷发所造成的破坏，在人类活动对环境造成的破坏面前也相形见绌。我们必须了解对群落抵抗、破坏和恢复来说哪些是最重要的。

现在的很多生态学家们认为，顶极群落相对长期的稳定性并非来自于多样性，而是来自环境的"补缀"，随处变化的环境比始终如一的环境更有利于多种有机体的生存。当地物种灭亡后，马上就会被相邻群落的移民取代。即便是另一种不同的物种，他们也可以填补那些已灭绝生物的空缺，并保持食物网的完整。

托福TPO3阅读真题原文及答案翻译Part3相关 文章 ：

1. 新托福阅读考试需要多长时间

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